College of Agriculture & Natural Resources

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Agriculture as a development problem in regional planning in Ghana.: A study of the Central Region.
(1967) Hagan, Anthony Lindsay
The purpose of the study is to find out whether perspective comprehensive regional planning can facilitate the achievement of substantial and sustainable agricultural development in this country. The study starts with a general investigation of the significance of the problem of agricultural development in developing countries with special emphasis on Ghana. Here the hypothesis of the study is stated, and it is shown that the perspective comprehensive regional planning can be used in Ghana because (i) the past uncoordinated patch-up methods of planning and development or the non-interference approach of allowing the price mechanism to make and implement development decisions have proved inadequate for the purpose of agricultural development; (ii) it is seen that the state of agriculture today requires a new treatment. Most of the problems connected with agricultural development can be solved most effectively only within a long term period; (iii) as agricultural development involves technical, social, economic, cultural and other problems are generally interdependent, there is the need to have some comprehensive system to embody and cope with the different problems, (iv) finally as agricultural development always involves the translation of national objectives and policies into realities (which transformation always takes place at local level) it is found necessary that the agricultural development programme should occur within a regional framework – the region being a link between national and local level. The study goes on to make a general survey of the state and role of agriculture in Ghana emphasizing its most notable characteristics such as its subsistence nature and low productivity and its close attachment to traditionalism. It also focuses attention on the important role of Ghana’s agriculture as the main supplier of foodstuffs and raw materials fro human consumption, industry and export, and also main source of employment, domestic and foreign savings. The next stage concentrates on the tasks and problems of agricultural development. Agricultural development is seen as aiming at (i) the reduction of the inflationary pressures in the economy, (ii) correction of the imbalance in the country’s external trade accounts and (iii) creation of employment opportunities. The main problems which affect agricultural development in Ghana are seen as those connected with soils, climate, vegetation, socio-economic and cultural factors such as land tenure, marketing organization, education capital and production aids or prerequisites. This is followed by a general review and analysis of past attempts made under the Colonial Administration and the first Nationalist Government to solve the problem of agricultural development. This is done with the aim of projecting the past mistakes and omissions in the development attempts with the object of avoiding the omissions and correcting the mistakes. These preliminary reviews and investigations actually prepare the stage for the suggested approach which is carried on in the Central Region. In the next stage the methods and techniques, such as the analysis of the physical conditions, the use of the techniques of general programming, Von Thunen’s economic rent, the principles of comparative cost and cost-benefit analysis employed to demonstrate how the new approach may operate are fully elaborated. From the different analyses, techniques and methods investigated, it becomes conclusively evident that a perspective comprehensive regional development planning can facilitate the achievement of substantial and sustained agricultural development in Ghana.
The use of various crops fro preparing silage in three types of silos to feed livestock during the dry season in Ghana
(1971) Tuah, Kwame Ambrose
In Experiment I silages were prepared from maize, sorghum and guinea grass in concrete culvert, steel drum and polyethylene bag silos. The ensuing materials were compacted by trampling. Molasses was added to the guinea grass fresh forage at the rate of 45.40 Kg molasses per 908 Kg of fresh forage. All the maize silages spoiled. The causes of the spoilage losses in all types of silos and every type of forage have been discussed. Guinea grass and sorghum silages were fed to young bulls. There was no significant difference between the consumption of sorghum and guinea grass silages. There was no significant difference between the consumption of silages in the different types of silos. In Experiment II, silages were prepared from a mixture of grasses as well as maize. Molasses was added to the mixed grasses. The silages were fed to dairy cows to determine palatability. There was a significant difference at both 5 and 1 levels between the consumption of mixed grasses and the maize silages. The possible reasons for the causes of the greater consumption of maize silages than that of grass silages have been discussed. It was found that concrete culvert silos were the mot economical followed by polyethylene bags and steel drums.
Influence of ethephon on the vegetative growth, flowering, fruiting and quality of the tomato, Lucopersicon esculentum Mill.
(1973) Addison-Sakyi, Vivian Mercy
When applied to tomato seedlings at two or three weeks after pricking out and at flowering, ethephon, at 250, 500 or 1,000 ppm resulted in retarded growth. This retardation was observed with plants grown in pots and also those planted in the open. Further observations included the occurrence of leef epinasty, end an increase in leaf production, stem thickness, anthocyanin content and the production of aerial roots at the base of the atoms. Flower bud initiation, anthesis end fruit set were delayed, except in the application was made three weeks after the seedlings had been pricked out. Harvesting was early for plants sprayed three weeks after pricking out but late for all other treatments. Total, early and marketable yield were either decreased in some treatments or were similar to that of the control plants in the field-grown plants. For plants grown in pots, there was an increase in total yield (fruit number) for those sprayed three weeks after pricking out. Marketable fruit number was also slightly increased but unmarketable fruit number was less for those sprayed with 250 ppm ethephon. Locule number was increased and seed number decreased in the Improved Zuarungu cultivar, particularly when treated with low concentrations of 250 or 500 ppm. Preharvest applications of 1,000 ppm ethephon caused early and concentrated Marketable yield. Dipping the nature green fruits in ethephon caused early ripening. No difference were oberved in pH or colour at the fruits but slight increases in titratable acidity and soluble solids of fruits were observed in all three experiments.
The Effect of Height and frequency of Defoliation on the growth, chemical composition and nutritive value Guatemala grass (tripsacum laxum, nash).
(1978) Ackor, Jones
The experiment was conducted on the Arable Crops Farms of the University of Science and technology (U.S.T.), Kumasi, Ghana, to find out the effects of height and frequency of cutting on growth chemical composition and the nutritive value of Guatemala grass (tripsacum laxum nash). The experiment was a 3 x 3 factorial design consisting of 3 heights (10, 25 and 40cm) and 3 frequencies (4, 8 and 12 weeks) of cutting. The height and frequency of the treatments were assigned to the plots randomly. Thus there were 9 treatments in each block and these treatments were replicated 3 times. Lax and moderate defoliation gave higher DMY, old tillers (OT), leaf stem ratio (LSR), Crude Fibre (CF) and higher yields of Nitrogen (N), Crude Ash (CA), Digestible Dry Matter (DDM) than severe defoliation. Severe defoliation, however, resulted in higher N, DDM and water Soluble Carbohydrate (WSCHO or Sol CHO) contents of the grass. Height of defoliation had no effect on the weight per tiller, number of new tillers (NT), number of dead tillers (DT), leaf and stem dry matter. Infrequent defoliation gave higher DMY, number of dead tillers, number of new tillers, weight per tiller, increased the leaf and stem dry matter contents and also resulted in higher CF, WSCHO, %DM, number of old tillers and higher yields of nutrients. Frequent defoliation on the other hand, gave higher content of N, CA, DDM, higher LSR and number of old tillers than infrequent defoliation. DMY, weight per tiller, CF, and number of new tillers were higher in the wet season than in the dry season. The DDM and WSCHO were higher in the dry season than in the wet season. CA, N, number of old and dead tillers remained similar in both seasons. Height of defoliation showed significant differences in yield, chemical composition and nutritive value only at the 4-week cutting internal and not at 8 or 12-week cutting interval. Since yield was higher in the wet season than in the dry season, excess fodder in the wet season could be conserved as hay or silage for dry feeding. Severe frequent defoliation resulted in the best quality forage but at the same time led to lower yields and death, especially, towards the latter part of the dry season. It would seem that in order to obtain high yields and good quality fodder, Guatemala grass may be defoliated at a height of about 25cm at 8 week cutting interval.
Forest inventory by statistical methods — an evaluation of the sampling error of cruises in the Bonkoni Forest Reserve at Mim, Brong Ahafo Region
(1981) Cardoso, Roger Damien
In recent times, the timber industry in Ghana engaged on enumeration wor1c with the aim of acquiring information on all trees which are in the forests and not only on those species which have hitherto been regarded as primary or, economic to the timber industry, In the light of this development, a hundred per cent enumeration survey in the Bonkoni Forest Reserve was initiated by the Mim Timber Company, the concessionaire, with the following objectives: 1.To ascertain the actual stocking of all trees which have girth sizes of five feet and above in this Forest Reserve; 2. To teach the Company’s enumeration team the techniques of identifying the lesser known species and also the enumeration survey procedures. As expected, the field works very costly and time consuming. It is the purpose of this thesis to utilise the results of this enumeration and to find out whether satisfactory inferences can be made using statistical methods. Six compartments each were having an area of 129.5ha. (0.5 sq. ml) constituted the unit of assessment and the species on this 77a (3sq, ml.) of total area constituted the ultimate unit. It is intended to verify whether a sampling fraction of less than 10 per cent could give a useful guide as to the nature and composition of the parent population. The results of this study demonstrate that for most of the species, a sampling fraction of 5 per cent could be considered adequate for most purposes. Average deviation for Pycnanthus angolensis and Pterygota macrocarpa was nil at that level of cruising. On the other hand, if sampling were to apply to Triplochiton sclerexylon and Celtis adolfi-friderici, a 1.25 per cent cruising could be considered satisfactory.
Ghana’s plywood production and marketing trends (1961 - 1978)
(1981) Boateng, Emmanuel Adu
The dissertation attempts to bring out some statistics on the plywood industry since 1961. Plywood industry first established in late forties, the number of operating mills at end of 1980 was nine. The, total log consumption by the plywood industry for the period 1961 - 1978 was 1650 thousand cubic metres including primary and secondary species. The major primary species are, Sapele, Mahoany, Edinam, etc. all included in 14 banned species. The total ‘plywood output for the same period was 624,800 cubic metros giving a recovery rate of 36 per cent. The statistical relation between log input and plywood output is given as: Y = 6.47 + 0.36X, whore Y is output of plywood and X log input. The co-efficient of X agrees with the recovery rate of 36 per cent. The projected local demand of plywood in 1992 is 109,514 cubic metres, resulting in overall projected output of 163,453 cubic metres. To achieve this projected output may require 66 per cent increase in existing number of plants. The plywood is characterized by two distinct markets, the local and export market. The export market started declining from 1976.
The growth of the winged bean (psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L) DC)
(1984) Asare, Eric
TWO experiments were conducted at the Arable Crops Section of the University of Science and Technology farms, Kumasi, (6° 43’N, 10 36’W) in 1981 and 1982, to study the influence of date of sowing, plant population density and 50% flower/pod removal on the growth and yield of two winged bean cultivars. Shoot and seed yields and components in the two cultivars (Tpt-8 and Tpt-1) were affected by the date of sowing, being positively influenced by rainfall and solar radiation income, so that major season planting (May sowing) gave higher shoot and seed yields than the minor season planting done in September. Both cultivars produced the highest seed yield at a population density of 2.7 plants/m2, irrespective of the date of sowing. Thus, a density of 2.7 plants/m2 appeared to approach the optimum for the crop under the conditions of the experiment. Seed yield was found to be mainly influenced by the total number of pods produced, although as plant density increased, the other components, that is, the number of seeds per pod and the mean weight per seed, also declined. 50% deflowering did not influence seed yield in the cultivars used, although normal plants appeared they have produced a higher seed yield and components. Deflowered plants generally gave greater roots and tuber weights than normal plants.
Influence of age of transplant and planting season on Corchorus Olitorius (L)
(1984) Boateng, P. Y.
Two separate experiments, each in a split-plot design were set up in the Kumasi area of the forest zone to study the influence of age at transplanting and planting seasons on the growth and yield of Corchorus olitorius. The seasons of the year and the age of transplants had varying effects on the growth and yield attributes studied. Plants grown in the major and minor rainy seasons had more leaves at planting out than plants grown in the dry season. Seedlings transplanted 22 days after pricking out gave the best establishment. The highest percentage of surviving transplants was recorded in the major and minor rainy seasons. Earliness to, as well as heavier yields at, first harvest, was recorded f or seedlings grown in the two rainy seasons. The oldest transplants (22-day old) were the earliest to reach first harvest and the youngest transplants produced the heaviest yield at first harvest. The dry season plants flowered Earlier and were the first to set fruits. The 22-day old transplants flowered and set fruits earlier than the younger transplants (10 and 14-day old). The total number of side shoots, total marketable, edible, non-edible, total shoot, leaf and stem dry matter yields were higher in the rainy seasons than in the dry season. In most cases, the major season plants gate higher values than plants grown in the minor, season. The age at which seedlings were transplanted did not cause significant differences in these parameters. Fruit dry matter and leaf/stem ratio were higher in the dry season. Whilst the older transplants had higher dry matter, the younger transplants were rather higher in leaf/stem ratio. It was in both rainy seasons that higher net assimilation rates, leaf area indices, and crop growth rates were obtained. The older ages at transplanting at the initial stages of growth, had higher values than the younger transplants in these growth attributes but at the later stages of growth, the younger transplants, because of their higher growth rate were at par with the older transplants.
Studies on the Growth of cassava (Manihot Esculenta Crantz) for Forage and Tuber Production
(1988) Agyei, John Opoku Mensah
Experiments were conducted as the University Farm, Kumasi, Ghana (6O43’N, 1O36’W) on two cassava cultivation, Atra (early maturing) and Ankra (late maturing) to determine their suitability for the production of both forage and tubers. The treatments were different shoot harvest dates, harvest frequencies, as well as plant spacing. The yields, qualities and chemical composition of shoots and tubers were assessed. In experiment 1, the early-maturing, Atra, produced significantly higher petiole contents and stem crude protein contents and also leaf and tuber cyanide contents than the late-maturing, Ankra at the initial shoot harvest period. When varying periods of regrowth were allowed, the shoot produced by Ankra contained significantly higher crude protein content in petioles and stems, and cyanide content in stems than Atra. Harvesting shoots between 112 and 140 days after planting gave optimum dry leaf and petiole yields, whereas dry stem and tuber yield tended to increase up to 300 days after planting. Crude protein content in leaves, petioles and stems were higher when periods of growth or regrowth were shorter. Harvesting of shoots beyond 140, 196 and 224 day after planting gave significantly higher tuber, lower petiole and higher leaf cyanide contents respectively, whereas plants harvested before 104 days of regrowth contained significantly higher leaf cyanide content than each of the other treatments. Plants harvested after a regrowth period of 104 days produced significantly higher tuber cyanide content and the stem harvested after a regrowth of 132 days contained significantly higher cyanide levels than the remaining treatments. In experiment 2, the responses of both cultivars to the treatments imposed were similar except that, Ankra produced petioles with significantly higher crude protein content than Atra, whereas petioles and stems produced by Atra contained significantly higher amounts of cyanide than Ankra. Closer planting (30cm x 30cm and 45cm x 45cm) tended to lead to higher dry leaf and petiole yields, as were as higher leaf crude protein content, but tuber yields were lower. Wider planning produced significantly higher dry stem yields and crude protein contents in petioles and stem. Plant spacing of 45cm x 45cmm or closer produced significantly lower when spacing was 60cm x 60cm or closer. Tuber cyanide content was significantly higher when plant spacing was 75cm x 75cm or closer. These results suggested that for the production of high quality forage, a planting distance of 45cm x 45cmm would be satisfactory. In experiment 3, the two cultivars differed in their response to the frequency of leaf harvest. The leaves of Ankra contained significantly higher crude protein levels than Atra, whereas, Atra produced stems that contained significantly higher crude protein levels. Harvesting cassava shoots at 2- and 3-monthly intervals led to significantly higher dry petiole and leaf yields respectively, whereas leaf harvest at any frequency reduces dry stem and tuber yields. Higher crude protein levels in leaves, petioles and stems, as well as higher leaf cyanide levels were produced by the 2- and 3-monthly harvest interval treatment, but the cyanide contents of petioles and tubers were significantly higher in the 3-monthly harvest treatment only. The studies indicated that 2- or 3monthly harvest cycle would be suitable for continuous production of foliage but at the expense of tuber yield, so that foliage and tuber production cannot be achieve simultaneously in any of the two cultivars.
Evaluation of cocoa pod husk as feed ingredient for sheep in Ghana
( 1989 ) Dzoagbe, Godwin Senyo Kwaku
A feeding experiment was conducted to evaluate cocoa pod husk (CPH) as a feed ingredient in the ration of sheep fed in confinement. The rations designated 1,2,3,4 and 5 contained 60, 45, 30, 15, and 0% dried cocoa pod husk respectively. Other ingredients used in the rations were maize, dried brewer’s spent grains, dried guinea grass meal, common salt, dicalcium phosphate and vitamin-trace mineral premix. The rations were formulated to be isocaloric containing about 8.64 MJ/kg Metabolizable Energy (ME) and isonitrogenous (about 8% C.P.). Each ration was fed to nine animals except ration 4 which was fed to 10 animals. There were two breeds of sheep (Djallonke and Sahel) and two sexes (male and female). The animals were allocated to the rations. randomly, but as far as possible, balancing for breed and sex The average daily dry matter intake per unit of metabolic body size per animal was highly significant (P<0.01) affected by dietary treatment but not by breed or sex. The mean daily dry matter intakes per unit metabolic body weight were 61.54, 79.50, 78.18, 70.48 and 61.26g for rations 1,2,3,4, and 5 respectively. The feed intake of the animals, fed rations 1 and 5 was significantly (P<1.01) less than that of those fed rations 2.and 3, while the feed intake of the animals fed ration 4 did not differ significantly (P>0.01) from the intake of the animals fed the other rations. The mean daily dry mater intake figures for the Sahel and the Djallonke breeds were 72.27g and 69.43g per unit metabolic body weight respectively while that of the male and the females were 70.47g and 6995g per unit metabolic body weight respectively. The mean daily water consumption per unit metabolic body size was highly significantly (P<0..01) affected by dietary treatment. The mean daily water intake values were 198.05, 203.74, 180.28, 165.46 and 149.08m1 per unit metabolic body weight for rations 1,2,3,4 and 5 respectively. The sheep fed ration 2 significantly (P<0.01) drank more water than those fed rations 4 and 5 while the sheep fed ration 5 significantly (P<0.01) drank less water than the animals fed the other four rations. The main factors which affected water intake were level of cocoa pod husk in the diet and the amount of water lost in urine and faeces. Sex and breed did not significantly (P>0.05) affected water intake. The mean daily water intake figures for the Sahel and the Djallonke breeds were 180. 94m1 and 178.27ml per unit metabolic body weight respectively while those for the males and the females were 170.47m1 and 177.50ml per unit metabolic body weight respectively. The apparent digestibility coefficients of dry matter were not affected significantly (P>0.05) by dietary treatment. The values obtained for rations 1,2,3,4, and 5 were 44.28, 51.93, 50.10, 49.29 and 52.157 respectively. Growth rate was highly significantly (P<0.01) affected by ration, sex and breed. The mean daily growth rates for the animals were 20.72g, 46.65g, 43.55, 35.51 g and 22.42g for rations 1,2,3,4, and 5 respectively. The mean daily gains in body weight form the sheep fed rations 2, 3 and 4 were significantly (P<0.01) higher than that of animals fed rations 1 and 5, while the growth rate of sheep fed rations 1 and S did not differ significantly P.>0.01). The sheep fed ration 4 had a significantly lower growth rate (P<0.01) than those fed ration 5. The mean daily growth rates for Sahel and the Djallonke breed were 39.86g and 31.42g respectively while the values for the males and the females were 3791g and 30.36g respectively. The Sahel breed grew significantly (P<0.01) faster than the Djallonke breed, while the male sheep also grew significantly (P<0.01) faster than the female sheep. It was observed that the Sahel breed consumed more feed and was more efficient in feed conversion than the Djallonke breed while the males also consumed more feed and utilized the feed more efficiently than the females. Feed conversion efficiency was significantly (P<0.01) affected by dietary treatment. The mean feed conversion efficiency values were20.96, 11.99, 12.95, 14.31 and 20.20kg/kg gain in body weight for rations 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 respectively. The feed conversion efficiency followed the same trend as growth rate. Dietary treatment did not have any significant effect (:> 0.05) on the levels of blood constituents measured except the level of alkaline phosphatase. The levels of this enzyme were 3.92, 4.61, 4.65, 4.67 and 4.59 K-A units for rations 1,2,3,4 and 5 respectively. Except for the level of alkaline phosphatase, sex did not have any significant (P>0.05) effect on the levels of the blood metabolites, measured. The females had higher levels of the enzyme (4.71 K-A units) than the males (4.37 K-A units). Breed of sheep did not significantly affect the levels of the blood constituents measured except the levels of total proteins and globulins1. The mean levels of the total proteins and globulins for the Babel and Djallanke breeds respectively were 10.75 and 10.llg/1.00ml for the proteins and 4.89 and 4.5lg/l00ml for the globulins. Dietary treatment did not significantly (P>0.05) affect rumen pH, rumen bacteria and rumen protozoa counts but significantly affected abomasal pH. The rumen pH values for rations 1,2,3,4 and 5 were 6.6, 6.33, 5.98, 5.98 and 6.13 respectively. The abomasal pH values were 2.88, 3.37, 3.50, 3.50 and 3.27 for rations 1,23,4 and 5 respectively. The sheep fed ration 1 had significantly (P<0.05) lower abomasal pH than the animals.fed rations 3 and 4 there was no significant (P>0.05) difference between the abomasal pH of animals fed rations 1,2, and 5. The rumen bacteria count values for sheep fed rations 1,2,3,4 and 5 were 6.32, 7.40, 7.78, 6.10 and 9.21 x 10 per ml of rumen fluid respectively. The rumen protozoa counts form animals fed- rations 1,2,3,4 and 5 were 4.19, 7.6 9, 4.69, 3.70 and 4.25 x 10 per ml of rumen fluid respectively. Except for the abomasal pH, breed did not have any significant effect (.P>0.05) on any of the other three parameters. The rumen pH values for the Djallonke and the Sahel breeds were 6.18 and 6.23 respectively. The abomasal pH values for the Diallonke and the Babel breeds were 3.23 and 3.52 respectively. The bacterial and protozoal count values for the Djallonke breed and the Sahel breed were 7.76 and 7.29 x l08 (bacterial counts) and 4.82 and 5.00 x l03 (protozoal counts) per ml of rumen fluid respectively. Dressing percentage was not significantly (P>0.05) affected by ration or breed. The values for rations 1,2,3,4 and 5 were 39.0,’ 41.0, 43.32, 40.06 and 39.68% respectively while those for the breeds were 41.24% for the Djallonke breed and 39.01%, for the Sahel breed. Except for the relative weight of the liver, the relative weights of the internal organs and the offal components of livewight were not significantly (P>0.05) affected by ration or breed. The weight of the liver was significantly (P<0.05) reduced in the animals fed ration 1 compared with those fed the other four rations... The values for the relative liver weights of sheep fed rations 1,2,3,4 and 5 were 0, 77, 1.12, 1.12, 1.25 and 1.247, respectively. There, was not much difference in the relative liver weights, of the Sahel breed and the Djallonke breed (1.07%, versus 1.13%).
Determination of total arsenic content of some food and cash crops, cooked food, vegetation, fish and meat from Kumasi and Obuasi
(1989) Amekor, Emmanuel Melvin Kofi
The total arsenic content of some food and cash crops from Kumasi and Obuasi farms and markets have been determined. Analyses were also conducted on vegetation, cooked food obtained from some homes, local fish, and meat as well as some soil and water samples. In all, 266 samples were examined. Sampling was random depending on which samples were available and obtainable at the different locations Vegetation was as far as possible collected from sources of water utilized for domestic purposes. KUIASI - food crops, 84 samples; cash crops, 8 samples; cooked food, 6 samples; vegetation, 6 samples; fish and meat, 2 samples. OBUASI - food crops, 104 samples; cash crops, 11 samples; cooked food 9 samples; vegetation, 20 samples; fish and meat, 2 samples; soil, 7 samples; and water, 7 samples. Two methods, Calorimetric and Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometric (A.A.S) techniques of analysis were employed for arsenic determination. Arsenic concentration values for Kumasi ranged between 0.05 and 4.85 mg/kg with the colorimetric method while A.A.S gave a range of 0.07 to 7.20 mg/kg. In Obuasi ranges of 0.05 to 52.00 and 0.12 to 70.50 mg/kg were obtained f or the calorimetric and A.A.S methods respectively. The data showed that arsenic levels from Obuasi are much higher than those from Kumasi. Secondly the A.A.S method gave greater arsenic content than the calorimetric method f or the same samples.
The effect of plant population density on growth and yield of maize
(1990) Badu-Debrah, Akwasi
Two maize varieties, Kawanzie, a short early-maturing variety and La Posta, a tall late-maturing variety, were sown on 10th April, in both 1986 and 1987, and 13th August, 1986 at 2.7, 5.4, 8.1, and 10.8 plants/m2 and at a rectangularity of 1:1, in a randoinised complete block design experiment at the Plantation Crops Farm of the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi (6°43’N, 1°36’W), in the forest zone of Ghana. The objective of the experiments was to study the effect of plant population density on the components of growth and yield of these varieties in the major and minor seasons in an attempt to explain observed seasonal differences in growth and yield of the varieties. The results of the experiments showed that leaf and stem dry weights increased with increase in plant population density up to 8.1 plants/m2, after which the increase in plant density to 10. 8plants/m2 did not show any significant increase in both leaf and stem dry weights. The effect of plant density on the decline in leaf and stem dry weights showed no clear trend, except that the quantity of dry matter lost from both the leaves and stems were generally more with the increase in plant density for La Posta Stalk diameter decreased with increase in plant population density. The results also showed that the components of growth: leaf area index and net assimilation rate, as well as total ear and grain yields and components were affected by both the date of sowing and plant population density. For early-maturing Kawanzie, grain yield and components increased in the major season up to 8.1plants/m2 and up to 5.4plants/m2 in the minor season and then declined. For the late-maturing La Posta however, grain yield and components were highest at 10.8plants/m2 in the major season, and the 8.1 plants/m2 treatment gave the highest grain yield in the minor season. The final grain yield for Kawanzie was higher in the minor seasons than in the major season, whilst, the reverse was obtained in the case of La Posta. The results indicated that the number of ears per m4 increased as population density increased though the number of ears per plant and weight per ear decreased with increase in plant population density, showing that after the optimum densities for the two varieties and seasons, the number of plants/ma could not compensate for the decrease in yields and components.
The influence of some management systems on the growth and yield of two soyabean varieties (Glycine Max, (L), Merrill)
(1990) Sagoe, Regina
A factorial experiment with a Split plot design with four replications was conducted to study the effect of variable soil management systems on the growth, and yield of two soyabean cultivate in Kumasi (6o 43’N, 1° 36’W) located in the Forest zone of Ghana. The coil management systems consisted of three seedbed configurations (flat, ridged and furrowed) which were either mulched with 6t/ha dried grass or unmulched. The two soyabean varieties – TGX 888 – 49C, an early maturing variety and TGX 536-02D, a medium maturing variety - were grown at a standard population density of 8.9 plants/m2 in the major and minor seasons of 1987. Another experiment was conducted in the major season of 1966, using the above population density in a randomized complete block design with four replications. Only one soyabean variety, TGX 888-49C was grown on two seedbed configurations (flat and ridged) with three mulching rates, 0, 6 and 12t/ha. Seasonal variations in soil temperature were evident with values being generally higher in the major season and on the ridged plots. The diurnal rage in soil temperature was greatest on the ridged plots, followed by the flat plots, with the furrowed plots giving the least range. Mulching significantly reduced coil temperature, and the magnitude of reduction increased as mulching rate and coil temperature increased. Soil moisture content in the 0-30cm soil depth was considerably influenced by seedbed configuration, with the values determined being in the order of flat > furrowed ridged plots, and ridged > flat > furrowed in the 1987 major and minor season respectively. Mean percentage emergence in the major season of 1987 was highest on the flat seedbed, followed by the furrowed and then the ridged plots, In the minor season, the corresponding order was ridged, flat and furrowed seedbeds. Emergence in the major season of 1988 was better on the ridged than on the flat plots. Seasonal variation in rainfall and coil moisture influenced vegetative growth and final seed yield. These parameters wore greater in the major season than in the minor season, and were significantly influenced by seedbed type. In the major and minor seasons, the respective increases were in the order of ridged < furrowed < flat plots, and furrowed < flat ridged plots. Mulching increased most of the plant characters studied. However, increasing the mulch rate from 6 to 12t/ha did not have any significant effects Mulching significantly increased C, L and E in the early vegetative stage in the major and minor seasons. Crop growth rate and components were influenced by seasonal changes in soil moisture and temperature. C, L and E were significantly higher on the flat seedbed, with the least values recorded on the ridged plots during the vegetative stage in the major season of 1987. In the minor season, the highest and lowest C and E were obtained on the ridged and flat plots respectively. Ridged plots gave a significantly higher L at flowering in the minor season of 1987. Premature, loss of leaf resulting in a reduced leaf area and thus photosynthate supply was found to have limited seed yield by reducing seed sink size and mean weight of seed.
A study of marketing system of crop produce in Dangme West District Greater Accra Region of Ghana
(1991) Abdirahman, Mohamed Ali
The marketing system is an essential link after the production process to accomplish the distribution of what is produced so that it reaches the consumer. Once the marketing system is impaired, sooner or later production suffers. Dangme West District economy is based mainly on agricultural crop production. The marketing of these crops has significant importance. This study investigated the crop marketing system performance in the district. A household survey was conducted in the district. In addition observations were made in markets at Dodowa, Old Ningo and Asutsuare. The observations were supplemented by the market survey information obtained from an earlier survey conducted by SPRING Program Participants. A number of problems were identified as making the crop marketing system in the district ineffective and inefficient. These included: inadequate storage facilities, lack of processing facilities, inadequate motor fleet, high cost of transportation; poor condition of feeder roads, poor pricing system, lack of physical markets, lack of farmers organization and lack of market information on the part of farmers. The cumulative effect of these problems is low crop production and productivity, leading to falling farmers’ incomes, and ultimately to falling standards of living of farmers. In order to solve the problems afflicting the crop marketing system in the district, a strategy has been formulated and recommended. The strategy aims at organizing farmers into a farmers’ association so that farmers collectively articulate their interests and defend them. In addition, the strategy aims at the rehabilitation of the feeder roads in the district making reform of land utilization in the district, improvement of storage facilities and rehabilitation of physical markets. It is expected that the implementation of the strategy will improve the performance of the crop marketing system in the district. The improvement of the marketing system will act as catalyst for increased production and productivity, leading to increased farmers’ incomes, hence better living standards for the farmers in the district.
Live fencing with Newbouldia laevis, Jatropha curcas, Agave sisalana and Pithecellobium dulce (a preliminary study)
(1992) Tuffour, Isaac
Four experiments were conducted at the Research Farm of the Institute of Renewable Natural Resources, Kumasi, Ghana (6° 43’N, 10 36’W) on four live fence species, namely; Jatropha curcas, Pithecellobium dulce, Newbouldia laevis and Agave sisalana, to determine their response to spacing; and on the two main methods of propagation of J. curcas and N. leavis, namely, sexual propagation and vegetative propagation, to determine their relative ease of establishment. Experiment 1 was set in a randomised complete block design (RCBD) and compared the percent germination and sprouting of J. curcas seeds and cuttings as well as the growth and survival of the seedlings and sprouts up to four months after planting. In Experiment 2, RCBD was used to compare the growth and survival of L laevis seedlings and sprouts four months after planting. Again, RCBD was used in Experiment 3 to estimate the growth and survival of A. sisalana bulbils at three different spacings, namely 20cm, 30cm and 40cm. Experiment 4 was set in a split plot design using the three species; J. curcas, P. dulce and L. laevis as main plot treatments and within-row spacing as sub-plot treatments to find appropriate spacings for J. curcas, P. dulce and N. laevis in live fencing. Single row fence sections were used as plots in the experiments. Data collected included percent germination and sprouting (for Experiment 1), percent survival, growth in height, growth in diameter (except Experiment 3), and spread of shoot (Experiment 3). Results from Experiment 1 showed a higher percent germination and survival as well as faster growth in height, diameter and root development of L curcas seedlings than cuttings. Seedlings had 83% germination and 96.9% survival at 4 months while sprouts had 40% sprouting and 34.4% survival. Seedlings also averaged 20.1cm height growth and 1.35cm diameter growth at 2 months while sprouts had 1.2cm height growth and 0.5cm basal stem diameter. Growth of J. curcas reduced drastically after two months due to the onset of a period of drought. In Experiment 2, no significant differences (P 0.05) were found between L laevis seedlings and sprouts though seedlings had 97.2% survival, 12.5cm mean height and 0.82cm basal stem diameter at 4 months while sprouts had 44.5% survival, 11.4cm mean height and 1.16cm basal stem diameter. Experiment 3 also showed no significant difference (P 0.05) between the three spacing treatments of A. sisalana with respect to survival, height growth, shoot spread, and the number of leaves produced. There were 100% survival for all treatments but the mean number of leaves per plant at 6 months ranged from 10.2 for the 30cm spacing to 11.8 for the 20cm spacing while shoot spread within the row ranged between 35.0cm and 36.1cm for the 40cm and 30cm spacings respectively and the spread of shoot across the row ranged between 33.2cm for the 30cm spacing and 35.4 cm for the 40cm spacing. In Experiment 4, J. curcas, P. dulce and L. laevis did not differ significantly (P 0.05) with respect to survival, although L. laevis had 97.5% survival compared to 100% survival for J. curcas and P. dulce, but significant differences (P 0.05) were found in the growth of the three species. At 4 months, the ranking order for height growth was P. dulce (52.1cm) > J. curcas (35.1cm) > N. laevis (17.0cm), while the order for growth in stem girth was J. curcas (2.3cm) > L. laevis (0.9cm) > P. dulce (0.5cm). Spacing did not affect the survival and growth of the three species up to 4 months in the field after which the onset of the dry season severely reduced growth and subsequent readings could not be used for statistical analysis. However, certain spacings showed consistently better growth in height and diameter up to 5 months in the field. The best heights as well as diameter growths for each species were found in the 29cm spacing of J. curcas, the 21cm spacing of P. dulce and the 41cm spacing of L. laevis. This research focused on initial growth patterns and further studies are needed to determine the performance of the species as mature stands under various management regimes such as pruning, and in association with crops and/or animals.
The influence of applied nitrogen on nitrogen fixation and Bradyrhizobium interstrain competition in intercropping systems
(1992) Akanwariwiak, William Gariba
Sole cropping of cereals has been viewed as contributing to a rapid decline in soil fertility. The incorporation of legumes in such farming systems, apart from offering food security, has the potential to improve soil fertility, through dinitrogen fixation. Such benefits are influenced by available soil nitrogen and indigenous rhizobial populations. The study was designed to determine (1) the starter nitrogen requirement of some cowpea and peanut cultivars (ii) Bradyrhizobiuin inter-strain competition and (iii) quantify the amount of dinitrogen, fixed in such cropping systems using the 15N-dilution technique. To achieve the above objectives, greenhouse and field studies were conducted. The pot experiment evaluated the influence of starter nitrogen application (0, 5, 10, and 35 mgkg-1 soil), legumes-cereal cultivar combinations on dinitrogen fixation in a soil of high indigenous rhizobia population. Selected legume-cereal combinations were put on a field trial at higher nitrogen fertilization rate (5, 50 and 300 g ha-1) and also evaluated dinitrogen fixation. Both pot and field experiments were split-split plot designs with four replicates. In the starter nitrogen experiment, there was response to inoculation for measured parameters for both legumes and component cereals. The starter nitrogen application of 10 and 35 mg N kg-1 was found to be suitable for both cowpea and peanut. Mixed cropped legume components fixed significantly more dinitrogen than the sole crops. Aburotia and Local-29 were found to be suitable reference crops for Soronko an Sinkarzej respectively. In the field, the rate of 50kgNha-1 enhanced growth parameters compared with 5 and 300kgNha-1. 300 kg ha-1 of nitrogen application suppressed nodule formation and development and consequently dinitrogen fixation. Nodule occupancy was highest with TAL 209 (61.27%) compared with TAL 658 and TAL 169 which occupied 48.47% and 30.86% respectively of nodules. With peanut strains TAL 169 was a better competitor occupying 56.15% of nodules followed by TAL 1371 (45.10%) and TAL 1000 (31.30%) was the least. The results indicate that (i) •a good selection of compatible cultivars of legumes and cereals for use in field experiments is a pre-requisite for increased yield and dinitrogen fixation in intercropping systems (ii) Response to inoculation can be achieved provided the strains are effective and more competitive than the native rhizobia populations and may not be influenced by these populations. (iii) Though nitrogen is required for increased yield production, nitrogen application as high as 300 gNha-1 inhibited nodulation and dinitrogen fixation and (iv) Interspecific competition among intercropped components is much more antagonistic to the legume than the cereal.
Live fencing in the Ashanti region of Ghana
(1992) Owusu-Sekyere, E.
Many forms of live fences are established in the rural and urban areas within the Ashanti Region. The fences are established basically for the protection of the agricultural crops and/or properties but the aesthetic value of live fences is appreciated. The live fences serve as boundary markers of land units, control of erosion especially in hilly areas. They are extensively used for food (fruits, leaves and barks), medicines (bark, leaves and root), fodder and firewood. Very little attention has been paid to live fencing. Hence, literature on it is scarce in Ghana. To establish and manage live fences properly, it is necessary to study them. It is therefore the object of this study to investigate the traditional practices of live fencing in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. The study was undertaken using questionnaires and personal interviews in 100 randomly selected towns and villages in the Ashanti Region. A stratified random sampling method was used and Kumasi was chosen as the reference point. The Ashanti Region was divided into 20 units along first class, second class, third class and feeder roads. Ten routes were then randomly sampled. One district was selected after reconnaissance trips along the selected routes. Data was collected in and around the communities in each of the selected districts. Field experiments on methods of propagation of eight of the identified species were also conducted at the I.R.N.R., U.S.T. Research Farm. The study revealed that nine (42.86%) live fence species were indigenous and twelve (57.14%) were exotic. More exotic species than indigenous species were found in the urban areas whilst the reverse was true for the rural areas. Sixteen species (76.19%) were identified as having multipurpose uses. Seeds (42.86%), stake cutting (47.62%) and stem cutting (28.57%) were the major propagates for the live fence species. Pollarding (57.14%) and lopping (42.86%) management practices were performed on the tree species whilst trimming (33.33%) and pruning (19.05%) were done on the shrub species up to a maximum of three times in a year. Live fences for security were cut high (> 1.0m). The shrub species used for live fencing were generally cut low (0.7m) depending on their morphology, age of species or the management strategies imposed to provide the goods and services required. Live fences for aesthetic value or facade were properly managed and cut at more or less uniform heights (1.5m). The unmanaged live fences grow taller (ranging between 1.8 and 8.4m). The tree species could be managed to form a hedge. The planting distances vary and generally tree species used for live fencing were spaced wider (1.9m) than the shrub species (0.7in). The live fence species identified ‘ere susceptible to fire (42.86%), insects (33.33%) and plant parasites (14.29%). However, 42.86% of the species were found to be resistant to these agents of destruction. In the field experimentations, seed germination was excellent for Pithecelobium dulce (100%) and fair for Cassia siamea (50%) but poor for Ricinus communis (20*). Stem cuttings sprouting were excellent for Gliricidia sepium (100%) and Pithecelobium dulce (85.7%) and poor for Euphorbia cortinifolia (28.6%). Ricinus communis stem cuttings did not sprout. The Breynia nivosa was the only species with some sprouting success in root cuttings (25%). The Jatropha curcas stem cuttings was superior to Spondias mombin (averaging 82.2% and 1.7% respectively). The basal sections of J. curcas showed rapid regeneration (89.3%) but again, the basal section of S. mombin (2.6%) was poor in regeneration. The terminal sections of J. curcas (81.3%) and S. mombin (1.3%) were respectively lower than the J. curcas and the S. mombin. Regeneration of S. mombin stem cuttings was generally poor in the short period of the experiment. Trees, woody shrubs and succulent shrubs could be used to establish effective live fences and managed well to achieve the desired goals. Information should be gathered on live fences particularly legume species to cover the different ecological zones in Ghana. Further studies should be done on sprouting of trees, woody shrubs and succulent shrubs to be able to make firm recommendation. It is however encouraging in that stem cuttings and seeds gave reasonable results. Comparative costs and benefits analysis on live fences and other forms of fencing should be evaluated.
Evaluation of the Nutritive Value of Some Selected Multipurpose Trees and Shrubs (MPTS)
(1993) Ntiri, Emmanuel Kwasi
Acacia auriculiformis, Albizia adianthefolia, Albizia lebbeck, Albizia zygia, Cajanus cajan, Calliandra calothyrsus, Cassia siamea, Cassia spectabilis, Gliricidia sepium, and Leucaena leucocephala were evaluated for their feeding value to sheep. Their foliage was analysed for dry matter, organic matter, ash, crude protein, crude fat using AQAC (1984) methods, and for ADF, NDF, cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin using the methods of Georing and Van Soest (1970). The determinations were done for both the wet and the dry season plant harvest for comparison. The in vitro dry matter digestibility was also determined for both seasons using the methods of Tilley and Terry (1963). Foliage of Albizia zygia, Albizia lebbeck, Cassia siamea, Cassia spectabilis, Leucaena leucocephala, Gliricidia sepium and Acacia auriculiformis were harvested during the dry season, air-dried and used in a supplementary feeding trial with cassava peelings as basal diet to determine their suitability as dry season supplements for sheep. The ten MPTS differed in their nutrient composition in both seasons (P<0.01) except for the ADF for the dry season where there were no significant differences among the species. DM values ranged between 38.6 (Albizia zygia) and 20.0 (Gliricidia sepium) for the wet season and 73.3 (Gliricidia sepium) and 46.6o (Albizia lebbeck) for the dry season. Crude protein values ranged between 32.5% (Leucaena leucocephala) and 20.0% (Acacia auriculifortnis) for the wet season, and 27.5% (Leucaena leucocephala) and 17.5% (Albizia zygia) for the dry season on DM basis while the lignin values for the wet seaS°fl ranged between 31.9% (Albizia zyqia) and 7.3% (Albizia 1ebci) and the dry season values ranged between 18.5% (Albizia zygia) and 4.4% (Calliandra calothyrsus and Leucaena ieucocephala) all on DM basis. The AIDF values ranged between 45.6% (Albizia zygia) and 12.8% (Leucaena leucocephala) for the wet season and 37.9% (Albizia zygia) and 15.0% (Leucaena çocephala) for the dry season on DM basis. Crude fat however ranged between 7.0% (Cajanus caian) and 1.1% (Acacia auriculiformis) for the wet season and 12.0% (Cajanus cajan) and 2.0% (Acacia auriculiformis) for the dry season. Apart from the differences among species within a season, for each species, there was a significant difference in nutrient composition between the dry season and the wet season. Generally, ADF, crude protein and lignin decreased while crude fat and cellulose increased during the dry season. However, the t-test showed that, for ash, NDF and hemicellulose, there were no significant differences in the overall means of the ten MPTS between the wet season and the dry season. The wet season in vitro dry matter digestibility ranged between 23.5% (Acacia auriculiformis) and 75.8% (Leucaena leucocephala) while the dry season values ranged between 18.0% (Albizia zygia) and 72.5% (Cassia siamea) . For most of the species, the dry matter digestibility improved during the dry season, however, there was no significant difference between the overall means of the ten species for the two seasons. In the supplementary feeding trial, two levels were fed for each species. These are 609 and 120g air-dry weight (7.0% moisture). The unsupplemented treatment (control) had the lowest mean daily dry matter intake (60.4 g/kg W°75). The 120g supplementary levels enhanced greater intake of dry matter than their respective 60g levels. The 120g supplements enhanced total dry matter intake ranging between 76.0 g/kg W°75 (Albizia zyqia) and 69.1 g/kg W°’75 (Cassia siamea) . The 60g supplemental levels also enhanced total dry matter intake ranging between 69.5 g/kg W°75 (Albizia zygia) and 62.5 g/kg Wo75 (Cassia siamea) . Cassia siamea seemed to contain some antinutritional factor or lacked some nutrient which induced lower intake and caused drastic reduction in weight of the animals. Daily water intake of sheep ranged between 93.1 mi/kg W°75 (Albizia lebbeck and Gliricidia sepium) and 68.2 mi/kg W°75 (Cassia siamea) for 120g supplementary levels. The 60g supplementary levels ranged between 92.7 mi/kg W°75 ((Albizia lebbeck) and 58.8 mi/kg W°75 (Cassia siamea) . The control, however, induced the lowest water intake (52.5 ml/kg W°75). There was a correlation between total dry matter intake and water intake (P<0.05). There was however no significant variation in water intake among the supplementary treatments. The mean daily weight gain varied between 18 g/day Ccassia siamea) and 78 g/day (Gliricidia sepium) for 120g supplement levels and 20 g/day (Cassia siamea to 87 g/day (acacia auriculiformis) for 60g supplements. The unsupplemented treatment (control) produced weight gain of 33 g/day. The ten MPTS were ranked based on their crude protein, ADF, NDF and lignin constituents as determined for the dry season, wet season and the values of both seasons combined. cocephala exhibited best quality factors in all the three ranks.
Wood and wood products consumption by Kumasi base end use sectors
(1993) Amoako, David K.
The Kumasi based wood using industries were studied to determine the volume of wood and wood products used in their production of wood items between 1985 and 1992; the type of species of wood used and preferences for these species; the sizes, prices grade and quality of wood raw materials employed. By administering a random proportional sampling technique in most cases, the selected industries were surveyed by the use of personal interviews and or discussions supported by measurements and observation of product quality. The study revealed that between 1985 and 1992 about 4,048, 188.02m3 of logs were locally processed (consumed) by mills in Kumasi while about 348, 337.18m3 of sawnwood; 61,181.68m3 of plywood and 3,101.4cm3 of roundwooden poles were used in the manufacture of other wood items for use in the country. Producers (Manufacturers) use a limited number of species that meet export requirements as well as meeting the local consumers taste for strength, durability, appearance, and economy of use. End-use sectors showed considerable differences in their preference for a type of species. Cylicodiscus qabunensis (Danya) was preferred for the construction of permanent wooden brideges. Preference for other species were Tyiplochiton scleroxylon (Wawa) for formworks, scaffoldings, temporal wooden structures, boxes and crates and market furniture; Milicia excelsa (Odum) for school furniture, roofing and joinery; Entandrophragma species (Cedars) for beds; jbourtia ehie (Ilyedua), Lovoa trichilioides (African Walnut), cylindricum (Sapele) and Khaya species (mahogany) for room furniture; Terminalia ivorensis (Emire) and Terminalia jpra (Ofram) for coffin and ceiling batterns. Various sizes of wood and wood products were used. The average diameter of logs was found to be 800mm whilst the most utilized poles were of average diameter of 150mm butt end for Telegraph netwrk; 300mm - 400mm butt end diameter for high tension electric transmission and 280mm average butt diameter for lot tension electric transmission poles. With sawnwood however, the most frequently utilized size were mainly 508mm x 1016mm; 381mm x 3048mm and 254mm x 3045mm boards. Plywoods used mostly were of thicknesses 4mm and 9mm. Generally, the quality of wood products consumed in the wood working industries was low. No sawnwood was found to be kiln dried or preservative treated while poles used in transmission work were all treated. Although varying between the producing sources, the quality of plywood used was generally good. While the price of sawnwood varying with species, thickness and grade was quite low that of plywood was very high. As a result of the exclusive use of few species in the Kumasi based industries to meet the growing demands in both the local and export markets much efforts are required of the Forestry Department, (FD); Forestry Research Institute Ghana, (FORIG) and Timber Export Development Board, (TEDB) of Ghana to respectively manage the forest resources under sustained use basis, conduct research and develop more markets to broaden the species base to avoid technical tree depletion.
Preliminary studies on rooting pattern and dry matter accumulation and distribution in Leucana Leucocephala, Gliricidia Sepium and Cassia Simea in the humid lowland of Ghana
(1993) Dawoe, Evans L. K.
Germination and seedling growth characteristics, dry matter accumulation between above and below-ground portions, and root growth and distribution patterns in one year old seedlings of Leucaena leucocephala, Cliricidia sepium and Cassia siamea were studied on the Institute of Renewable Natural Resources’ Research Farm in Kumasi. Germination percentage was highest in Leucaena (93%), followed by Gliricidia (91%) and then Cassia (74%). Seedling component and total dry weight growth ranked in the order Gliricidia > Leucaena > Cassia. Relative growth rates of shoots, roots and whole plants differed significantly (P < 0.05) between species. Within each species root growth was proportionately greater than shoot growth. Shoot/root ratios decreased with increasing seedling dry weight. Field excavations showed that the bulk of total root biomass (63-96%) occurred in the 0-15cm soil depth. Total root excavations at 53 weeks after planting (WAP) showed that Leuceana, Gliricidia and Cassia had root systems reaching depths of 46.7, 53.5 and 50cm, and maximum leteral spreads of 98.2, 93.0 and 104.7cm, respectively. Thus even though competition between tree and crop roots should be expected in later years, roots of these species can act as “safety nets” for leached nutrients underneath shallow roots of annual crops, thereby improving nutrient use efficiency. The proportion of total dry weight in foliage decreased with age while the proportion in sterns and branches increased with age in all the species. Root nodules occurred on Leucaena and Gliricidia roots but not Cassia. While active nodules were observed on Gliricidia roots throughout the study period, no active nodules were found on Leucaena roots after 31 WAP. All the three species appear to be good for alley cropping and other agroforestry interventions. Thus other factors such as resistance to termite attack, provision of useful products (fodder, wood and stakes other than green manure) will determine the farmers’ choice of species for agroforestry systems in Ghana.

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